Case study of Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification of Methylmercury in the ecosystem

SUMMARY

• All mercury compounds are are toxic and can be dangerous at very low levels in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
• Because mercury is a persistent substance, it can build up in living organisms, inflicting increasing levels of harm on higher order species such as predatory fish and fish eating birds and mammals through a process know as biomagnification.
• The most important pathway for mercury bioaccumulation is through the food chain.
• In the water, plants and small organisms like plankton take up mercury through passive surface absorption or through food intake.
• For autotrophic organisms (which do not eat other organisms), passive absorption is the only route of exposure.
• Heterotrophic organisms (animals which eat other life forms) may be exposed to dangerous concentrations through the food chain as predators eat other organisms and absorb the contaminants that their food sources contained.
• Over time, an individual who consumes plants or prey contaminated with methylmercury will acquire levels greater than in either its habitat or its food.
• As a result, top predators acquire greater body burdens of mercury than the fish they consume.

If the concentration of methylmercury in lake water is considered to have an absolute value of 1, then approximate bioaccumulation factors for microorganisms like phytoplankton are 105; for macroorganisms like zooplankton and planktivores are 106 ; and for piscivores like fish, birds and humans are 107

Almost all mercury compounds are toxic and can be dangerous at very low levels in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Because mercury is a persistent substance, it can build up, or bioaccumulate, in living organisms, inflicting increasing levels of harm on higher order species such as predatory fish and fish eating birds and mammals through a process know as "biomagnification". Although the long-term effects of mercury on whole ecosystems are unclear, the survival of some affected populations and overall biodiversity are at risk.

Methylmercury

In the environment, particularly lakes, waterways and wetlands, mercury can be converted to a highly toxic, organic compound called methylmercury. Methylmercury, which is absorbed into the body about six times more easily than inorganic mercury, can migrate through cells which normally form a barrier to toxins. It can cross the blood-brain and placental barriers, allowing it to react directly with brain and fetal cells. Mercury contamination causes a wide range of symptons in organisms, and affects the kidneys and neurological systems in particular. 

Bioaccumulation

The most important pathway for mercury bioaccumulation is through the food chain, as illustrated in the figure above. In the water, plants and small organisms like plankton take up mercury through passive surface absorption or through food intake. For "autotrophic" organisms (which do not eat other organisms), passive absorption is the only route of exposure. The amount of mercury that results in these species from even a lifetime of passive absorption is not generally harmful to the organism. On the other hand, heterotrophic organisms (animals which eat other life forms) may be exposed to dangerous concentrations via a second route. Methylmercury biomagnifies through the food chain as predators eat other organisms and absorb the contaminants that their food sources contained. Over time, an individual who consumes plants or prey contaminated with methylmercury will acquire levels greater than in either its habitat or its food. As a result, top predators acquire greater body burdens of mercury than the fish they consume.

Methylmercury in Fish

Methylmercury is held tightly to fish protein when absorbed through the gills or when contaminated food sources are eaten. In some cases, methylmercury levels in carnivorous fish, such as freshwater bass, walleye and pike, and marine shark and swordfish, bioaccumulate up to a million times greater than in the surrounding water. Although fish appear to be tolerant to large body burdens of methylmercury, there have been human deaths in cases of severe poisoining. For example, in the 1950s, the Chisso Corporation in Minamata, Japan, released untreated effluent containing methyl mercury chloride into Minamata Bay. Once in the bay's sediments, the mercury was readily absorbed by marine species, contaminating the entire ecosystem. Fish consumed by local residents resulted in the deaths of more than 1000 individuals and severely impacted the developing fetuses of pregnant women.

Methylmercury in Wildlife

Piscivorous (fish eating) predators such as loons, merganser ducks, osprey, eagles, herons, and kingfishers, generally have very high concentrations of mercury. Mercury has been detected in Common Loons from Alaska to Atlantic Canada, and blood concentrations have been correlated with levels in prey fish species. High levels of mercury are suspected to impair the loon's reproductive success as well as cause growth related problems.These problems inevitably lead to an increased death rate and a decreased birth rate, resulting in a reduction in the abundance of natural populations.

[Taken from http://www.ec.gc.ca/mercure-mercury/default.asp?lang=en&n=d721ac1f-1 ]

Biomagnification

• Biomagnification is the buildup of substances (e.g. DDT, PCB) in the bodies of organisms at higher trophic levels of food webs.
• Organisms at lower trophic levels accumulate small amounts.
• Organisms at the next higher level eat many of these low level organisms and hence accumulate larger amount.
• At the highest trophic levels the increased concentrations in tissues may become toxic.
• When a higher level predator eats a lower level organism, it ingests the toxic substance (e.g. DDT, PCB) with its food.
• Even through the concentration of the toxic substance at lower trophic levels of the food chain may be in very low concentration, higher up the food chain the concentration is higher.
• DDT, PCB are organic pollutants which are not excreted nor decompose readily. They accumulate in adipose tissues.

QUIZ

Try this activity out to see if you really understand:
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/13_ocean_pollution/activities/biomagnification.html#activity

Symbiotic Relationships


Mutualism: +/+
Both populations benefit. The interaction is necessary for the survival and growth of each species. e.g. crab and sea anemone


Commensalism: +/o
One population benefits. The other is unaffected. e.g. shark and fish; whale and barnacles


Parasitism: +/-
One population benefits (parasite) while the other is harmed (host). The interaction is necessary for the survival of the parasite. e.g. human and parasites; dog and fleas

DID YOU KNOW?
A producer is also called an autotroph because it can make its own food and energy. Then there are the consumers which are also called heterotrophs because they cannot make their own food and get their energy from eating others. A detritivore breaks down decaying matter and recycles the organic matter back to inorganic nutrients in ecosystems. Saprotroph is another name given to decomposers. Detritivores are made up of decomposers and detritus feeders. Decomposers will return the nutrients while detritus feeders just acquire nutrients from dead animals/plants or waste products but don’t return the nutrients to the environment. Also, herbivores are animals that eat plants only, omnivores are animals that eat both plants and other animals and carnivores are animals that eat other animals only.

Energy Flow

Energy is loss during life processes like growth, respiration, excretion and egestion. The plant 
gets 10% from the Sun then the consumer that eats the plant will only get 1% followed by 
0.1% then 0.01% and so on.

Ecological Pyramids

Pyramids of Biomass: The dry mass of all the organisms at each trophic level may be estimated.

Pyramid of Numbers: The number of organisms at each trophic level.

Pyramid of Energy: The total energy utilized at each trophic level.

Food chains
Food chains show the transfer of energy from one organism to another. 
Primary Producer --> Primary Consumer --> Secondary Consumer --> Tertiary Consumer --> Quatemary Consumer


Example:

Food webs
A system of interlocking and interdependent food chains.

Example:

Trophic levels
The trophic level is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain. Each feeding level in a food chain is called a trophic level.

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC
Biotic:
- Plants
- Animals
- Fungi

- Competition

- Predation

Abiotic:

- Temperature

- Light

- Soil

- Air (oxygen)

- Water / Humidity

- pH level (acid / alkaline)

- Salinity (fresh water vs seawater)

BIOACCUMULATION
Bioaccumulation is the accumulation of contaminants by species in concentration that are magnitude higher than the surrounding environment.


BIOCONCENTRATION
Bioconcentration refers only to the uptake of substances into the organism from water alone. 


BIOMAGNIFICATION
Biomagnification applies to trophic levels. The buildup of substances in the bodies of organisms at higher trophic levels of food webs.


THE DIFFERENCE?
Bioconcentration and bioaccumulation occur within an organism while biomagnification occurs across trophic levels. Bioconcentration refers only to the uptake of substances into the organism from water alone while bioaccumulation is the more general term because it includes all means of uptake into the organism. Thus, we can say that bioaccumulation = bioconcentration + biomagnification.

Definitions

A habitat is the physical place where a plant or animal (population) lives. It must supply the needs of organisms, such as food, water, temperature, oxygen, and minerals.
A population is a group of living organisms of the same kind living in the same place at the same time.
All of the populations in the same habitat interact and form a community.
A niche is the role and position of an organism (species) in the community. No two species can occupy exactly the same niche.
The community of living things interacts with the non-living world around it to form the ecosystem.
Ecosystem is a complex interaction of living and non-living processes e.g. as small as a puddle or as huge as the Earth.
Habitats that have similar climate and plants are called biomes.



More Definitions

• A population consists of all individuals of a species that occur together at a given place and time. All populations living together and the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem.
• Populations of organisms can be categorized by the function they serve in an ecosystem. Plants and some microorganisms are producers—they make their own food. All animals, including humans, are consumers, which obtain food by eating other organisms. Decomposers, primarily bacteria and fungi, are consumers that use waste materials and dead organisms for food. Food webs identify the relationships among producers, consumers, and decomposers in an ecosystem.
• For ecosystems, the major source of energy is sunlight. Producers use photosynthesis to transform energy entering ecosystems as sunlight into chemical energy. That energy then passes from organism to organism in food webs.
• The number of organisms an ecosystem can support depends on the resources available and abiotic factors, such as quantity of light and water, range of temperatures, and soil composition. Given adequate biotic and abiotic resources and no disease or predators, populations (including humans) increase at rapid rates. Lack of resources and other factors, such as predation and climate, limit the growth of populations in specific niches in the ecosystems.

Learning Outcomes

1. Identify biotic and abiotic characteristics in an ecosystem
2. Understand that the biosphere is composed of ecosystems, each with distinct biotic and abiotic characteristics.
3. Explain how limiting factors influence an organism’s distribution and range e.g.,
   · abiotic factors: soil, relative humidity, moisture, ambient temperature, sunlight, nutrients, oxygen · biotic factors: competitors, predators and parasites
4. Define and explain the interrelationship among species, population, community, habitat, niche and ecosystem. State examples of each.
5. Explore different types of symbiotic relationships and interpret them as parasitism, commensalism and mutualism.
6. Understand the different roles played by each organism in the ecosystem and the various relationships between them (e.g. predator-prey and competition).
7. State that the Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.
8. Describe the non-cyclical nature of energy flow.
9. Define autotroph (producer), heterotroph (consumer), detritivore and saprotroph (decomposer), and trophic levels.
10. Explain how energy losses occur along food chains, and discuss the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
11. Interpret food chains, food webs, pyramids of numbers and biomass.
12. Define Bioaccumulation as the accumulation of contaminants by species in concentrations that are in magnitude higher than the surrounding environment.
13. State that the bioaccumulation is the sum of bioconcentration and biomagnification.
14. Define biomagnification as the buildup of substances in the bodies of organisms at higher trophic levels of food webs.
15. Explain using an example of biomagnification in an ecosystem.

Knowledge

1. Individual members of populations interact with each other as well as with members of other populations, which can have an impact on the populations involved.
2. There is a continuous exchange of materials / energy between the living systems and the Earth and the balance of nature is sustained when losses equal to replacements.
3. The energy input to ecosystems is the radiant energy of sunlight and producers are essential to harness this radiant energy and convert it to chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.
4. Energy flow through an ecosystem in the form of chemical energy is present in organic matter and the flow is unidirectional.
5. Inter-relationships and inter-dependencies among organisms generate stable ecosystems that fluctuate around a rough state of equilibrium.

Blood Flow in the Right Side of Heart

Deoxygenated Blood from the upper body flows through the Superior Vena Cava to the right side of the heart, while blood from the lower body enters the heart into the Right Atrium through the Inferior Vena Cava. It passes through the Tricuspid Valve to the Right Ventricle and through the Pulmonic Valve into the Pulmonary Artery.

NOTE:

• The pulmonary artery, unlike other arteries, carries deoxygenated blood.
• The Mitral Valve is also known as the Bicuspid Valve.

Blood Flow in the Left Side of Heart

Oxygenated Blood from the Lungs flows through the Pulmonary Veins into the left atrium, through the Mitral Valve into the Left Ventricle. It then passes through the Aortic Valve to go into the Aorta which in turn transports the blood to the upper and lower body.

NOTE: 

• Similar to the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary vein carries not deoxygenated blood but oxygenated blood from the lungs.

TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

Arteries: These are the thick-walled blood vessels carrying oxygenated blood (leading to its high blood pressure) to the body.

Veins: The veins have thinner walls as compared to arteries but is almost just as thick. It carries deoxygenated blood back to the body.

Capillaries: The small blood vessels that red blood cells squeeze and release oxygen through.